{"id":2948,"date":"2025-03-09T15:05:45","date_gmt":"2025-03-09T13:05:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/?p=2948"},"modified":"2025-03-09T15:06:15","modified_gmt":"2025-03-09T13:06:15","slug":"psychophysiology-of-depression","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/","title":{"rendered":"Psychophysiology of Depression"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Depression is a complex <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> condition that goes beyond emotional and psychological impacts. Its roots are deeply intertwined with physiological mechanisms that affect the body and mind in profound ways. Understanding the psychophysiology of depression allows us to explore the interplay between biological systems, psychological factors, and the physical manifestations of this condition. This article aims to provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of depression and its implications on physical health, fostering a comprehensive understanding of its multifaceted nature.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<label for=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-item-69da29820c340\" class=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-label\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/label><input type=\"checkbox\"  id=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-item-69da29820c340\"  aria-label=\"Toggle\" \/><nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#21_Mechanisms_Underlying_Depression\" >2.1 Mechanisms Underlying Depression<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Biological_Mechanisms\" >Biological Mechanisms<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Psychological_Mechanisms\" >Psychological Mechanisms<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Environmental_Mechanisms\" >Environmental Mechanisms<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#22_How_Depression_Affects_Physical_Health\" >2.2 How Depression Affects Physical Health<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Impact_on_Immune_Function\" >Impact on Immune Function<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Cardiovascular_Health\" >Cardiovascular Health<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Endocrine_System_and_Metabolic_Health\" >Endocrine System and Metabolic Health<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Sleep_Disturbances\" >Sleep Disturbances<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/psychophysiology-of-depression\/#Conclusion\" >Conclusion<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"21_Mechanisms_Underlying_Depression\"><\/span>2.1 Mechanisms Underlying Depression<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Depression is a multifaceted <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in daily activities. Understanding the mechanisms that underpin depression is crucial for effective intervention and treatment strategies. These mechanisms can be categorized into biological, psychological, and environmental factors, demonstrating the complexity of this disorder.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Biological_Mechanisms\"><\/span>Biological Mechanisms<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Biological mechanisms play a significant role in the onset and progression of depression. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine are integral to regulating mood and emotional responses. Dysregulation or imbalance in these neurotransmitter systems is associated with depressive symptoms. For example, low levels of serotonin have been extensively linked to mood disorders, suggesting that alterations in serotonergic transmission can precipitate feelings of despair and irritability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Research has also highlighted the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in depression. This neural pathway is involved in the body\u2019s response to stress. Individuals with depression often exhibit dysregulation of the HPA axis, resulting in elevated levels of cortisol, the body&#8217;s primary stress hormone. Chronic cortisol elevation is correlated with neuroinflammation and alterations in neural plasticity, further solidifying the connection between stress, brain function, and depressive disorders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Genetic predisposition is another critical component of the biological mechanisms underlying depression. Family and twin studies have shown that genetic heritability accounts for a significant portion of the variance in depressive disorders. Specific genetic markers, such as those affecting serotonin transport, may increase vulnerability to depression, although the interaction between genetic and environmental factors is intricate and presents numerous opportunities for further research.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Psychological_Mechanisms\"><\/span>Psychological Mechanisms<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Psychological mechanisms also contribute significantly to the <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/definition-of-growth-and-development\/\">development<\/a> of depression. Cognitive theories propose that negative thought patterns and maladaptive beliefs play a central role in the maintenance of depressive symptoms. Cognitive distortions, such as catastrophic thinking and overgeneralization, can exacerbate feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Individuals with depression often engage in self-critical thoughts, which can perpetuate a cycle of internalized negativity and sustained emotional distress.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Moreover, personality traits such as neuroticism and low self-esteem can predispose individuals to depressive episodes. Those with high levels of neuroticism may be more susceptible to experiencing negative emotions and stressors, while low self-esteem can lead to a lack of resilience in coping with adversity. Understanding these psychological underpinnings is critical for therapeutic interventions, as approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) seek to restructure these maladaptive cognitive patterns.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Environmental_Mechanisms\"><\/span>Environmental Mechanisms<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental factors also play a crucial role in the emergence of depression. Adverse life events, such as loss of a loved one, unemployment, or relationship breakdowns, can trigger depressive symptoms, particularly in individuals with existing vulnerabilities. Chronic stressors, including poverty or social isolation, can further exacerbate depressive episodes, highlighting the importance of a supportive social environment in <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Furthermore, early life experiences, such as childhood trauma or neglect, can have profound and lasting impacts on <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a>. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) framework emphasizes how childhood trauma is correlated with the <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/definition-of-growth-and-development\/\">development<\/a> of various <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> disorders, including depression. These traumas can lead to maladaptive coping mechanisms and altered stress responses, further increasing the risk of depression in adulthood.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In summary, the mechanisms underlying depression are multifaceted and intertwined. A comprehensive understanding requires consideration of biological, psychological, and environmental dimensions, emphasizing the necessity for a holistic approach to treatment and intervention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"22_How_Depression_Affects_Physical_Health\"><\/span>2.2 How Depression Affects Physical Health<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The interplay between mental and physical health has garnered increasing recognition, with evidence illustrating the profound impact of depression on physical well-being. Depression not only influences emotional and psychological states but also has significant ramifications for physical health, affecting various bodily systems and increasing the risk of comorbid conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Impact_on_Immune_Function\"><\/span>Impact on Immune Function<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Depression can lead to dysregulation of the immune system, resulting in inflammation and compromised immune response. Individuals with depression often exhibit elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are linked to various health conditions, including cardiovascular disease and autoimmune disorders. Chronic inflammation associated with depression can contribute to the onset of physical ailments, creating a cycle where poor physical health exacerbates depressive symptoms, leading to further immune dysfunction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Cardiovascular_Health\"><\/span>Cardiovascular Health<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The relationship between depression and cardiovascular health is particularly alarming. Research indicates that individuals with depression are at a higher risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, including coronary heart disease and hypertension. Depression can influence lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and substance use, which are vital determinants of cardiovascular health. Additionally, the stress response associated with depression can lead to increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure, further straining the cardiovascular system.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Endocrine_System_and_Metabolic_Health\"><\/span>Endocrine System and Metabolic Health<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Depression has also been shown to impact the endocrine system, particularly through the HPA axis previously mentioned. Chronic stress and elevated cortisol levels can lead to weight gain, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome. Individuals with depression may exhibit altered eating behaviors, resulting in either overeating or loss of appetite, both of which can significantly impact physical health. The <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/definitions-and-models-of-mental-health-and-illness\/\">integration<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> treatment with addressing lifestyle and nutritional factors is essential in mitigating these risks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Sleep_Disturbances\"><\/span>Sleep Disturbances<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Sleep disturbances are common in individuals with depression, with symptoms ranging from insomnia to hypersomnia. Poor sleep quality not only <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/elements-compounds-and-mixtures\/\">compounds<\/a> depressive symptoms but also has detrimental effects on physical health. Lack of restorative sleep is associated with a variety of health issues, including obesity, diabetes, and weakened immune function. Understanding and addressing sleep issues in individuals with depression is critical for improving both mental and physical health outcomes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The nexus between depression and physical health highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach to treatment that addresses both mental and physical well-being. With a greater understanding of the mechanisms underlying depression and its widespread effects on physical health, <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> professionals can adopt integrative strategies that prioritize holistic health. This includes not only psychotherapeutic interventions but also lifestyle modifications, nutritional support, and physical health <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/master-monitoring-and-evaluation-in-5-minutes\/\">monitoring<\/a>, ultimately aiming to break the cycle of depression and its physical health ramifications. In doing so, we pave the way for a more effective and compassionate approach to <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/carl-jungs-collective-unconscious-theory-of-personality\/\">mental health<\/a> care, encouraging individuals to pursue their paths toward recovery and well-being.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Understanding the psychophysiology of depression allows us to explore the interplay between biological systems, psychological factors, and the physical manifestations of this condition.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center 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2025","format":false,"excerpt":"This blog post delves into the intricacies of these biological therapies, exploring their mechanisms, benefits, and controversies.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Blog&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Blog","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/category\/blog\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Healing Minds: The Power of Biological Therapies in Psychology","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/pexels-photo-8725739.jpeg?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/pexels-photo-8725739.jpeg?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/pexels-photo-8725739.jpeg?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/pexels-photo-8725739.jpeg?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/02\/pexels-photo-8725739.jpeg?fit=1200%2C800&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":2997,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/primary-care-behavioral-health-in-zambia-integrating-mental-health-into-primary-care-for-better-outcomes\/","url_meta":{"origin":2948,"position":1},"title":"Primary Care Behavioral Health in Zambia: Integrating Mental Health into Primary Care for Better Outcomes","author":"centreforelites","date":"March 17, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"Primary Care Behavioral Health (PCBH) offers a pragmatic, evidence-informed framework for bridging this gap by embedding behavioral health services within primary care settings.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Abnormal Psychology&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Abnormal 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https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Primary-Care-Behavioral-Health-in-Zambia-Integrating-Mental-Health-into-Primary-Care-for-Better-Outcomes-1.png?fit=1200%2C675&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Primary-Care-Behavioral-Health-in-Zambia-Integrating-Mental-Health-into-Primary-Care-for-Better-Outcomes-1.png?fit=1200%2C675&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":982,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/factors-affecting-postnatal-development-of-adolescents\/","url_meta":{"origin":2948,"position":2},"title":"FACTORS AFFECTING POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS","author":"centreforelites","date":"November 1, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"This article introduces you to the postnatal development aspects such as physical and maturational changes that characterise the adolescence stage.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Developmental Psychology&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Developmental Psychology","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/category\/developmental-psychology\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"FACTORS AFFECTING POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENTS","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/pexels-photo-1157536.jpeg?fit=1200%2C859&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/pexels-photo-1157536.jpeg?fit=1200%2C859&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/pexels-photo-1157536.jpeg?fit=1200%2C859&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/pexels-photo-1157536.jpeg?fit=1200%2C859&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/pexels-photo-1157536.jpeg?fit=1200%2C859&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":2979,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/definitions-and-models-of-mental-health-and-illness\/","url_meta":{"origin":2948,"position":3},"title":"Definitions and Models of Mental Health and Illness","author":"centreforelites","date":"March 9, 2026","format":false,"excerpt":"https:\/\/youtu.be\/jE5k0ymixDg The WHO defines mental health as a state of well-being enabling individuals to realise abilities, cope with normal stresses, work productively and contribute to their communities. This definition shifts emphasis from disease to functioning and participation (WHO, 2021). For Zambia, a country with diverse linguistic, ethnic, and religious communities\u2026","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Abnormal Psychology&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Abnormal Psychology","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/category\/abnormal-psychology\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Definitions and Models of Mental Health and Illness","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Definitions-and-Models-of-Mental-Health-and-Illness.png?fit=1200%2C673&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Definitions-and-Models-of-Mental-Health-and-Illness.png?fit=1200%2C673&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Definitions-and-Models-of-Mental-Health-and-Illness.png?fit=1200%2C673&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Definitions-and-Models-of-Mental-Health-and-Illness.png?fit=1200%2C673&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Definitions-and-Models-of-Mental-Health-and-Illness.png?fit=1200%2C673&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":933,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/en\/2-types-of-statistics-applied-in-educational-psychology\/","url_meta":{"origin":2948,"position":4},"title":"2 Types of Statistics Applied in Educational Psychology","author":"centreforelites","date":"November 3, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"There are two basic types of statistics used in all areas of research, namely descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. 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