{"id":1109,"date":"2022-04-06T11:29:00","date_gmt":"2022-04-06T09:29:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/"},"modified":"2024-03-14T21:52:18","modified_gmt":"2024-03-14T19:52:18","slug":"pragmatics-and-discourse-structure","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/","title":{"rendered":"Pragmatics and Discourse Structure Relationships"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"\">\u00a0<span style=\"font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;\">In this article we shall be examining the relationships between Pragmatics and Discourse Structure<\/span> or <span style=\"font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;\">some other ways speakers and writers encode meaning using some grammatical <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/elements-compounds-and-mixtures\/\">elements<\/a> in discourse. Discourse (as we shall see in detail later), is the actual use of language in specific situations or what you may call a demonstration of language in action. Pragmatic meaning is expressed in discourse and this we have so far tried to prove in this study.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"850\" height=\"897\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.png?resize=850%2C897&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE STRUCTURE\" class=\"wp-image-2296\" srcset=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.png?w=850&amp;ssl=1 850w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.png?resize=284%2C300&amp;ssl=1 284w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.png?resize=768%2C810&amp;ssl=1 768w, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.png?resize=11%2C12&amp;ssl=1 11w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 850px) 100vw, 850px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE STRUCTURE<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;\">In an attempt to provide a detailed account of pragmatic strategies in a particular discourse context, it is important to examine how the discourse is structured, the various grammatical <a href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/elements-compounds-and-mixtures\/\">elements<\/a> or discourse markers in the expression, how coherent the discourse is and of course how the overall content of the utterance is presented to convey certain semantic or pragmatic meanings.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-grey ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<label for=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-item-69d9083678151\" class=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-label\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/label><input type=\"checkbox\"  id=\"ez-toc-cssicon-toggle-item-69d9083678151\"  aria-label=\"Toggle\" \/><nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/#Discourse_Markers\" >Discourse Markers<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/#Pragmatics_of_Non-sentences\" >Pragmatics of Non-sentences<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/#Pragmatics_of_Deferred_Interpretations\" >Pragmatics of Deferred Interpretations<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/#Pragmatics_of_Language_Performance\" >Pragmatics of Language Performance<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/pragmatics-and-discourse-structure\/#CONCLUSION\" >CONCLUSION<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Discourse_Markers\"><\/span><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark986;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark985;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: _Toc46930159;\"><b style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;\"><span style=\"color: windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">Discourse Markers<\/span><\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"_Toc46930159\"><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Discourse Marker (DM) generally refers to \u201ca syntactically heterogeneous class of expressions which are distinguished by their function in discourse and the kind of meaning they encode\u201d (Blakemore 2006:221). There has not been a consensus among linguists as to what they are and how many they are in English. Some scholars have used such terms as <i>pragmatic marker, discourse connectives<\/i> or <i>discourse particle<\/i> to describe a discourse marker and again it is difficult to conclude that they all refer to the same thing. Using Blakemore\u2019s model, we shall give examples of Discourse markers (DMs) in English as:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(i)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">well<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(ii)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">but<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(iii)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">so<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(iv)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">indeed<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(v)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">in other words<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(vi)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">as a result<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">(vii)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><td>\n<p style=\"line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 7.0pt; margin: 12.0pt 0cm 0cm 0cm;\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">now<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: EN-GB;\">&nbsp;<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">To call the above items \u2018discourse markers\u2019 is probably intended to explain the fact that they must be described at the level of discourse rather than sentence. The term \u2018marker\u2019 is to reflect the fact that their meanings must be analysed in terms of what they indicate or <\/span><i style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">mark<\/i><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"> rather than what they describe (Blakemore 2006). But one thing is clear and it is that DMs function as markers of relationships between units of discourse. They are important to pragmatic research because they are expressions that often contribute to <\/span><i style=\"font-size: 12pt;\">non-truth-conditional<\/i><span style=\"font-size: 12pt;\"> sentence meaning distinguished from other expressions by their roles in indicating relationship of the basic message to the foregoing discourse (Fraser, 1996).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Bearing in mind that pragmatics is viewed as <i>meaning minus truth condition<\/i> (while semantic is the study of truth-conditional meaning), DMs fall to pragmatics because they do not contribute to truth-conditional content of the utterance that contains them. Look at the following example:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"bookmark988\"><\/a><!-- [if !supportLists]--><i><span style=\"color: black;\"><span style=\"mso-list: Ignore;\">A.<span style=\"font: 7.0pt 'Times New Roman';\">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/i><!--[endif]--><i><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">You\u2019re likely to go for your lunch earlier today, right?<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"bookmark989\"><\/a><!-- [if !supportLists]--><i><span style=\"color: black;\"><span style=\"mso-list: Ignore;\">B.<span style=\"font: 7.0pt 'Times New Roman';\">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/i><!--[endif]--><i><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Well, I haven\u2019t thought of that<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"bookmark990\"><\/a><!-- [if !supportLists]--><i><span style=\"color: black;\"><span style=\"mso-list: Ignore;\">A.<span style=\"font: 7.0pt 'Times New Roman';\">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/i><!--[endif]--><i><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">I forgot to tell you that Okey left this morning but forgot this laptop<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"bookmark991\"><\/a><!-- [if !supportLists]--><i><span style=\"color: black;\"><span style=\"mso-list: Ignore;\">B.<span style=\"font: 7.0pt 'Times New Roman';\">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/i><!--[endif]--><i><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Poor him.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">You will agree that B\u2019s use of \u2018well\u2019 does not contribute to the meaning of his response which basically is that he hadn\u2019t thought of going for lunch earlier. The same thing happens in A\u2019s second statement. Although the suggestion of contrast in the use of \u2018but\u2019 is noted, it still does not contribute to the meaning of the statement which is that&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(i) Okey had travelled&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(ii) He forgot his laptop. Some linguistics have argued that DMs do not contribute to truth-conditions representation truth and that truth condition itself is a property of mental representation rather the representation truth-conditions. This we see clearly in the above examples. The natural question that arises now is: if DMs do not contribute to truth-condition meaning what do they contribute to?<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">It is important to note here that DMs are not the only examples of non\u00adtruth conditional meaning. Fraser (1990, 1996) gave four examples of \u2018pragmatic markers\u2019 that express non-truth conditional meaning:&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(i) <i>Basic Markers<\/i> (e.g. <i>please!)<\/i>which indicate the force of the intended message&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(ii) <i>Commentary Marker,<\/i>which comment on the basic message (e.g. <i>frankly)<\/i>&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(iii) Parallel Marker (e.g. <i>damn<\/i>), which encode an entire message.. .separate and additional to the basic and\/or commentary message&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">(iv) Discourse Marker (e.g. <i>after all, but<\/i> and <i>as a result)<\/i> which in contrast to commentary markers do not contribute to \u2018representational meaning\u2019 but only have \u2018procedural meaning, signalling how the basic message relates to the prior discourse (Blakemore 2006).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">You will recall that Grice (1957) had earlier pointed out how implicature represents meaning above some truth-condition meaning. He later pointed out that while some utterances communicate information about the \u2018central or ground-floor\u2019 speech act, DMs like <i>but <\/i>or so communicate information about a \u2018non-central or higher level\u2019 speech act.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">In the example above <i>A<\/i> performs a ground floor statement that Okey has travelled and has forgotten his laptop and at the same time a non-central speech act by indicating that he is drawing a contrast between the two parts of the statement. The function of <i>but<\/i> is to signal the performance of this act and hence it does not affect the truth value of the utterance. Those aspects of linguistic meaning that contribute to the content of the ground-floor statement are said to contribute to <i>what is said,<\/i> while those aspects of meaning which signal information about the performance of a non-central act are said to contribute to what is <i>conventionally implicated.<\/i>&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Pragmatics_of_Non-sentences\"><\/span><span style=\"mso-bookmark: _Toc46930160;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark995;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark993;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark992;\"><span style=\"color: windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">Pragmatics of Non-sentences<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"_Toc46930160\"><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">In his \u201cpragmatics of non-sentences,\u201d Stainton (2006) points out that while interactants communicate with words such as \u2018Lagos\u2019 (as an answer to a question like \u2018where do you live?\u2019) or a noun phrase like \u2018my father\u2019 in answering a question like \u2018who pays your school fees?\u2019 they also do utter fully grammatical expressions \u201cwhich happen to be less-than-sentential nouns and Nps, adjectives and AdjPs, as well as PPs, VPs, and so on.\u201d In order words, \u201cspeakers routinely utter bare words and phrases not syntactically embedded in any sentences, and they thereby perform speech acts like asserting, asking, commanding and so on\u201d (2006:266).&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">While we may not be concerned with theoretical issues raised by Stainton here, we must acknowledge the fact that both oral and written communications demonstrate the various ways language users perform acts, since they do not always have to speak or write in what theoretical grammarians may classify as \u201ccorrect sentences.\u201d An expression such as \u201cthe head of department\u201d uttered by one of your friends at seeing a car driving in from the gate, is not a sentence but a noun phrase and the function of asserting which it performs is not from a prior linguistic context, rather a non-linguistic context. Similarly, if you say: \u201cplaying too careful\u201d as you watch the Super Eagles, you appear to utter a verb phrase, but you have definitely made a point.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Statements that are not necessarily sentences appear in newspaper headlines, book titles, labels, adverts or other marketing communications. These appear as single words or phrases and interestingly readers are able to recognise their illocutionary force or the kind of speech acts they perform. Some linguists however believe that whenever a non-sentence is uttered, producing some speech act, the speaker actually uses a sentence. They think that non-sentence expressions may in fact be described as <i>elliptical sentences<\/i>. The term ellipsis is when certain items in a sentence are understandably elided, e.g. <i>he has left the room,<\/i>may just be \u2018he has left.\u2019 Stainton argues that this kind of explanation may be explaining away the existence of genuinely non-sentence speech acts.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Pragmatics_of_Deferred_Interpretations\"><\/span><span style=\"mso-bookmark: _Toc46930161;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark999;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark998;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark1001;\"><b style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;\"><span style=\"color: windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">Pragmatics of Deferred Interpretations<\/span><\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"_Toc46930161\"><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">I have borrowed the term \u201cPragmatics of Deferred Interpretations\u201d from Nunberg (2006) to explain further the fact that we often use expressions to refer to something that is not part of the denotational sense of that expression. In Unit 7 where we examined the term \u2018reference\u2019 in details, we noted that the natural language system enables us to use one thing to refer to another with which it has some close association. In the context of deference, Nunberg (2006) points out that figurative expressions such as metaphor, metonymy, polysemy etc. are cases of deferred interpretations.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Although many linguists or language users generally have considered, figuration as a mere play of language use with some stylistic effects, Nunberg argues that metaphors for instance are marked by background assumptions with cultural interests and that what creates the stylistic effect of say: <i>wigs<\/i> for judges, is \u201cnot the mechanism that generates it, but the marked assumptions that license it&#8230;the playful presupposition that certain (professionals) are better classified by their attire than by their function\u201d (2006:344). If you will recall, Grice (1967) treats metaphors and other figures of speech as some kind of implicature, involving the violations of some truth conditions.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Nunberg however argues that deferred uses of expressions operate through a process of \u201cmeaning transfer\u201d which is purely a pragmatic process. \u201cMeaning transfer is the process that allows us to use an expression that denotes one property as the name of another property, provided there is a salient functional relation between the two\u201d (p.346). So where there is a correspondence between the properties of one thing and the properties of another, the name of the first property is often used to refer to the properties of the other.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">So examples of metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche are in fact cases of meaning transfer. If I say \u201cwe need more hands to finish the work\u201d (synecdoche) where \u201chand\u201d represents \u201cmen\u201d there is a correspondence between the assumed properties of hands and that of men (hands being part of a man\u2019s body) which in turn correspond with work (For a full detailed discussion see Geoffrey Nunberg: \u201cThe Pragmatics of Deferred Interpretation\u201d in <i>The Handbook of Pragmatics, <\/i>Blackwell, 2006)<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Pragmatics_of_Language_Performance\"><\/span><span style=\"mso-bookmark: _Toc46930162;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark1005;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark1003;\"><span style=\"mso-bookmark: bookmark1002;\"><b style=\"mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;\"><span style=\"color: windowtext; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">Pragmatics of Language Performance<\/span><\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><a name=\"_Toc46930162\"><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Clark (2006) observes that traditional pragmatics had concentrated so much on \u201cpre-planned, non-interactive\u201d language, like that of novels, newspapers, broadcasting etc, without sufficient attention to interactive language performance in real life situations.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">In his paper \u201cpragmatics of language performance\u201d he insists that in order to fully appreciate how language users interact, we must pay attention to \u201cspontaneous, interactive language\u201d of canteens, classrooms, offices, kitchens or football fields. In real life communicative context, speakers decide <i>what <\/i>to say and <i>how<\/i> to say it. For instance speakers will naturally apply discourse strategies such as repetitions, hesitations, fillers or even speech errors to communicate effectively. The language of conversation according to Clark is the best form of language in use that must be of interest to modern pragmatics.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">The interactive language of conversation is performed through \u201ccommunicative acts\u201d and such interactive language has its origin in joint activities. \u201cWhen people do things together in cafes, classrooms, and offices, they need to coordinate their individual actions, and they use a variety of communicative acts to achieve that coordination.. .communicative acts are themselves joint actions that require coordinating, and people have a special class of communicative acts for this coordination\u201d. Communicative acts include (i) <i>Signal<\/i> made up of \u2018content\u2019 and \u2018performance\u2019 (ii) display made up of indicating (or pointing). For example:<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Jide: <i>I lost my grandmother last week; did I tell you?<\/i><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Obinna: <i>Oh no!<\/i><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">Jide utters a sentence as a signal to Obinna. Notice that a signal here is the action by which Jide <i>means<\/i>something to Obinna. Jide performs his utterance by asking him a question in order to gain his approval to tell him a story. The choice of what to say i.e. the choice that Jide makes to use a question to seek Obinna\u2019s permission is known as <i>content.<\/i> The choice of using his voice and perhaps a nod, or gestures to designate himself as the speaker while Obinna is the hearer is called <i>performance<\/i>. Content is the <i>what<\/i>, while performance is the <i>how<\/i>. If after the story of his grandmother\u2019s death Jide asks Obinna, \u201cwhich is your Dad\u2019s car?\u201d and he points, the act of pointing becomes the <i>Display<\/i>. Display in this context is referred to as <i>communicative act of indicating<\/i>.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">The act of pointing is an <i>index<\/i> to the car. Speakers \u201cperform what they say in a <i>particular time, place<\/i> and <i>manner<\/i>, constituting the right moment, for the right duration, originating from and directed to the right locations, at the right amplitude, with the right gestures. They display their signals to others in order to designate such things as the speaker, addressee, time, place and content of their signals\u201d (p. 366-7). All these are crucial to the full understanding of pragmatics as the study of language in context of speakers and situations. (For details on <i>Pragmatics of Language Performance,<\/i> see Herbert Clark in <i>The Handbook of Pragmatics, <\/i>Blackwell, 2006)<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"CONCLUSION\"><\/span><b><span style=\"font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;\">CONCLUSION<\/span><\/b><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"\"><span style=\"font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;\">The relationship between pragmatics and discourse analysis is such that one presumes the other. Up till now some scholars still believe that the two are more or less the same, but it is safer to state that discourse analysis presumes pragmatics i.e. a good discourse analysis of a text is likely to take into account issues that are of interest to pragmatics.It is quite clear however that most pragmatic studies have been carried out on utterances or text that may be describe as discourse. As we can see, discourse markers, non-sentence expressions, deferred interpretations and interactive language performances are various areas of discourse that have significant pragmatic implications.<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u00a0In this article we shall be examining the relationships between Pragmatics and Discourse Structure or some other ways speakers and [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2295,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"set","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"wds_primary_category":144,"footnotes":""},"categories":[144,145],"tags":[285,283,234],"class_list":["post-1109","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-english-language","category-pragmatics","tag-discourse-structure","tag-linguistics","tag-pragmatics"],"aioseo_notices":[],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/PRAGMATICS-AND-DISCOURSE-STRUCTURE.jpg?fit=765%2C441&ssl=1","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":1105,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/the-relationship-between-pragmatics-and-discourse-analysis\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":0},"title":"The relationship between Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"\u00a0The relationship between pragmatics and discourse analysis is such that makes it difficult to really say where one ends and where the other begins or when one explicitly excludes the other. The most popular definition of discourse analysis is given by Brown and Yule (1983) i.e. \u201c... .the analysis of\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"The relationship between Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-Discourse-Analysis1.png?fit=1200%2C469&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-Discourse-Analysis1.png?fit=1200%2C469&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-Discourse-Analysis1.png?fit=1200%2C469&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-Discourse-Analysis1.png?fit=1200%2C469&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-Discourse-Analysis1.png?fit=1200%2C469&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":1123,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/meaning-and-scope-of-pragmatics\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":1},"title":"MEANING AND SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"Quite a number of language scholars have defined pragmatics, which are of interest to us in this study. These definitions throw some light on the nature, principles and scope of pragmatics. Let\u2019s look at a few of them. MEANING AND SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS (i)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Leech & Short (1981:290) - Pragmatics\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"MEANING AND SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/MEANING-AND-SCOPE-OF-PRAGMATICS.png?fit=800%2C800&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/MEANING-AND-SCOPE-OF-PRAGMATICS.png?fit=800%2C800&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/MEANING-AND-SCOPE-OF-PRAGMATICS.png?fit=800%2C800&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/MEANING-AND-SCOPE-OF-PRAGMATICS.png?fit=800%2C800&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x"},"classes":[]},{"id":1121,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/the-context-of-pragmatics-in-the-language-use\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":2},"title":"The Context of Pragmatics in the Language use","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"Language use in this article will definitely refer to the use of linguistic codes (words) in the context of social life since pragmatics is the study of language use by individuals in specific social situations and whose actions are actually influenced by these situations. The study of language in its\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":1107,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/the-relationship-between-pragmatics-and-core-linguistics\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":3},"title":"The relationship between Pragmatics and core Linguistics","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"\u00a0Linguistics is formally defined as the scientific study of language and its subfields, i.e. phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics are often referred to as \u2018core linguistics.\u2019 Already we have endeavoured to explain the\u00a0interaction of pragmatics with these subfields by pointing out the mediatory roles pragmatics plays in providing answers associated\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"The relationship between Pragmatics and core Linguistics","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-core-Linguistics1.jpg?fit=1200%2C848&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-core-Linguistics1.jpg?fit=1200%2C848&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-core-Linguistics1.jpg?fit=1200%2C848&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-core-Linguistics1.jpg?fit=1200%2C848&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/support.centreforelites.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/The-relationship-between-Pragmatics-and-core-Linguistics1.jpg?fit=1200%2C848&ssl=1&resize=1050%2C600 3x"},"classes":[]},{"id":1104,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/introduction-to-pragmatic-research-methods\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":4},"title":"Introduction to Pragmatic Research Methods","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"\u00a0INTRODUCTION Linguistics is often defined as a \u201cscientific study\u201d of language because of the nature of investigation that is involved in the study. Over time, language experts have applied scientific methods such as observation of some phenomena\/variables in language use, identification of problems, formulation of some testable hypotheses, collection and\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Introduction to Pragmatic Research Methods","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.aesanetwork.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Res-onion-page0001-990x700.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.aesanetwork.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Res-onion-page0001-990x700.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.aesanetwork.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Res-onion-page0001-990x700.jpg?resize=525%2C300&ssl=1 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.aesanetwork.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Res-onion-page0001-990x700.jpg?resize=700%2C400&ssl=1 2x"},"classes":[]},{"id":1108,"url":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/interfaces-of-pragmatics\/","url_meta":{"origin":1109,"position":5},"title":"Interfaces of Pragmatics","author":"centreforelites","date":"6 \u0430\u043f\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044f, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"\u00a0In this article, we shall be considering the interfaces of pragmatics and other linguistic disciplines; in other words we shall see how grammar, lexicon and sound\/tone of voice interact with pragmatics. The questions we are likely going to answer will include: are there not purely grammatical constructions that convey pragmatic\u2026","rel":"","context":"\u0412 &quot;English Language&quot;","block_context":{"text":"English Language","link":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/category\/english-language\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]}],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1109","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1109"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1109\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2330,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1109\/revisions\/2330"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2295"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1109"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1109"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/support.centreforelites.com\/ru\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1109"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}