African Resistance to the Establishment of Colonial Rule in Central Africa

Early African resistance to the establishment of colonialism in Central Africa was divided into two stages. These stages were the Primary resistance stage and the Secondary resistance stage. The Primary resistance stage represented the initial and direct opposition towards the intrusion of colonial powers. This resistance was characterized by numerous uprisings, rebellions, and acts of defiance against the encroaching colonizers. It was a period of fierce determination to protect their land, resources, and way of life.

The Secondary resistance stage emerged as a response to the persistence of colonial powers in Africa. With the realization that the colonizers were not simply going to withdraw, African communities began to adopt different strategies to resist and undermine colonial rule. This stage witnessed the formulation of organized movements, political activism, and the establishment of various resistance networks. During both stages, African communities utilized a variety of tactics to combat colonialism.

These tactics ranged from armed resistance and guerrilla warfare to political mobilization and the maintenance of cultural identity. The resistance efforts of Africans in Central Africa during this period were characterized by a spirit of unity, resilience, and determination. This division of resistance stages highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of the African struggle against colonialism in Central Africa.

It demonstrates the continuous and evolving resistance efforts that spanned over an extended period. Despite the challenges faced, the resistance movements played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for future liberation struggles and the eventual achievement of independence in many African countries.

NYASALAND

PRIMARY RESISTANCE

(I). RESITANCE BY CHIEFS.

The resistance of the Yao Chiefs against British occupation stemmed from the British policy of discouraging slave trading. These chiefs openly defied the British appeal to end slave trading and vehemently opposed the British occupation of Nyasaland due to their insistence on continuing this practice. In response to their defiance, the British military launched severe attacks, resulting in the defeat of prominent Yao Chiefs such as Chikumba, Makanjira, Matapwiri, Kawinga, Mponda, and Chief Jalasi.

Similarly, the Ngoni people also opposed British occupation as a consequence of the British’s efforts to suppress inter-tribal raiding. The leader of the Maseko Ngonis, Chief Inkosi Gomani, took an extraordinary step by forbidding his people from working for Europeans. However, when some Ngoni individuals expressed a desire to persist in raiding neighboring tribes, disregarding the British directive, the British responded with military force, ultimately subduing and defeating the Ngoni. Tragically, Chief Inkosi Gomani paid the ultimate price, losing his life in the conflict.

(I) AFRICAN CHURCHES

The inauguration of Yesaya Zerenji Mwase as the first African Church Minister in Nyasaland took place in 1914 at Livingstonia Mission, under the auspices of the Free Church of Scotland. At that time, tensions arose between the white and African missionaries due to conflicting attitudes towards African customs and values. Elliot Kamwana, a student at the Bandawe Mission in Livingstonia, was the first to voice his dissent against the discriminatory practices of white missionaries, including the imposition of fees in mission institutions. Kamwana’s opposition to these issues compelled him to leave the institution.

In 1908, he traveled to the United States alongside the progressive white missionary Joseph Booth. During his time in America, Kamwana became influenced by the teachings of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. When he returned to Nyasaland, Kamwana baptized over ten thousand individuals into the Watch Tower Faith. He preached that by 1914, white rule would come to an end and Black Africans would assume governance of Nyasaland. Additionally, Kamwana actively opposed oppressive laws and the levying of taxes in Nyasaland, which raised concerns among the white rulers. As a result, Kamwana was deported successively to South Africa, Mauritius, and Seychelles.

The Watch Tower movement established by Kamwana functioned as an independent African church. In 1907, Charles Domingo formed his African Seventh-day Baptist Church after a disagreement with Donald Frazer, a white missionary. Domingo organized several separatist churches and independent schools, vehemently criticizing both white missionaries and the colonial government for their dishonesty, thievery, and mockery.

Consequently, Domingo, too, was deported by the colonial authorities. John Chilembwe, a student of the Blantyre Mission, traveled to the United States where he received training as a Church Minister at a Baptist Seminary. Following his return to Nyasaland, Chilembwe founded the Providence Industrial Mission, a breakaway church mission.

Chilembwe expressed opposition to the recruitment of Africans for the First World War, the refusal of the white colonial government to compensate the families of fallen soldiers, the expropriation of African farmlands, the imposition of the hut tax, as well as various other economic, political, and social injustices. In January 1915, Chilembwe

SECONDARY RESISTANCE

WELFARE SOCIETIES.

The failure of the African churches to address African grievances with the colonial government prompted the mission-educated young men to seek alternative approaches to the issue. This led to the establishment of Native Associations or Welfare Societies, which became the first organized opposition to colonial rule. The first Native Association, known as the North Nyasaland Native Association, was established in 1912, with Levi Mumba as its first leader.

In 1913, the Southern Province Native Association was formed under the leadership of Gresham Njilima, and in 1920, the Mombera Native Association was established. These Associations expressed African opposition to racial discrimination, inequality in educational opportunities, and the lack of African representation in local administrative bodies. Additionally, the influence of Nyasaland African soldiers, who had been exposed to political movements in India and Madagascar during the Second World War, led to the amalgamation of the Native Associations into the Nyasaland African Congress.

The Nyasaland African Congress advocated for full and fair African involvement in the Legislative Assembly, Township management, and Land Boards. They also demanded an end to racial discrimination, as well as improvements in African educational opportunities and facilities.

SOUTHERN RHODESIA

PRIMARY RESISTANCE

(I) RESISTANCE BY CHIEFS

In 1890, upon receiving an invitation from Cecil Rhodes, a British imperialist, European settlers and colonizers entered the Ndebele Kingdom. At that time, Lobengula became aware of the implications of the Rudd Concession, which he had previously signed. Lobengula reacted to the European occupation by attempting to reject the concession and denying entry to Rhodes and his colonialist group into his Kingdom. Nonetheless, upon facing threats of military attack from Rhodes, Lobengula was compelled to allow British colonialists to occupy his kingdom. Despite this, the Ndebele people persisted in opposing the occupation of their kingdom by White imperialists. In response to this resistance, Cecil Rhodes launched an attack and successfully defeated the Ndebele in 1893.

(II) THE NDEBELE AND SHONA UPRISING.

Traditional religion has always exerted a significant influence on the Shona people. The priests belonging to the Mwari-Mlimo cult played a crucial role in instigating a rebellion among both the Shona and Ndebele communities against White rule.

In response to the British South Africa Company (BSAC) granting a substantial amount of Ndebele land to white settlers, the British government established a land commission in 1894 to safeguard land rights for the Ndebele people. This commission led to the creation of two reserves for the Ndebele, namely Gwaai and Shangani. Unfortunately, the Gwaai area lacked water and Shangani was infested with tsetse-flies, rendering the living conditions inhospitable. Consequently, many Ndebele were compelled to become squatters on European farms. Under the oppressive conditions of servitude, both the Ndebele and Shona were coerced by white farmers to work under slave-like conditions.

The White settlers seized Ndebele cattle and distributed them among themselves, resulting in the abolition of the Ndebele monarchy and stripping the Indunas of their power. The upper echelons of the Ndebele community were also forced into labor for white landowners. Similarly, the authority of Shona chiefs was undermined, and Shona land was appropriated by white settlers without any consultation with the chiefs. Furthermore, the Shona people suffered at the hands of the whites, who meted out punishments without seeking consent from their chiefs. The BSA Company also took control of gold trading rights from the Shona.

In 1894, a hut tax was introduced for Black individuals, further fueling resentment and bitterness among both the Ndebele and Shona against white rule. The Mwari-Mlimo traditional religious cult played a unifying role, prompting the Ndebele and Shona to join forces, set aside their differences, and confront their common white enemy. Umlugulu, the Chief Priest, and Mkwati provided leadership for the Ndebele community, while religious leaders such as Bonda, Nehanda, and Kagubi served as leaders for the Shona people. Under their guidance, the Ndebele and Shona united and launched a rebellion in 1896, seizing the opportunity presented by the failure

SECONDARY RESISTANCE

MOVEMENTS AND ASSOCIATIONS

In 1923, the Rhodesia Bantu Voters Association was established under the leadership of Abraham Twala. This organization advocated for responsible governance and fair treatment of Africans in return for their votes.

The whites were however not ready to accept educated Africans. There were also very few Africans who qualified as voters. Thus, the association failed to have any impact.

In 1934 the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress was formed by Aaron Jacha. It was the first Congress movement in Central Africa and a predecessor of modem nationalism in Southern Rhodesia. It pressed for African grievances but it was not very successful.

TRADE UNIONS

A railway line was constructed from Beira in Mozambique to Umtali and Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia. This railway line was completed in 1889. Another railway line from Cape Province in South Africa to Bulawayo and Wankie in Southern Rhodesia, and through Livingstone to Shaba province in Zaire, was completed in 1909. In Northern Rhodesia, copper, zinc, and lead mining were conducted, while gold, coal, and chrome were mined in Southern Rhodesia. These industries employed both Africans and whites. Africans were provided with low wages and held lower positions. Consequently, African workers formed trade unions in an effort to improve their working conditions.

In Southern Rhodesia, the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union was established in 1927 by Robert Sambo. This union expressed their dissatisfaction with the political affairs of the country and voiced the need to address the grievances of black employees. However, the leaders were imprisoned, and Sambo was deported to Malawi. By 1954, the Trade Union movements were permitted to exist and operate, on the condition that they be multi-racial. Unfortunately, due to the negative attitude of white workers, this arrangement did not function well.

NORTHERN RHODESIA

PRIMARY RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE BY CHIEFS

The Sesheke chiefs didn’t want the BSA Company to take over North-western Rhodesia, but Lochncr bribed them and Lewanika made sure they stayed silent. In North-eastern Rhodesia, the Ngoni under Mpenzeni didn’t want to be colonized, so they refused to sign any treaty with Alfred Sharpe, who represented Britain. They fought against the British, but unfortunately, they were defeated.

Similarly, the Bemba and the Lunda of Luapula resisted the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia. The British responded by attacking and defeating both the Bemba and Mwata Kazembe’s Lunda.

AFRICAN CHURCHES

Willie Mokalapa is credited with establishing the first African independent church in Northern Rhodesia in 1900. Mokalapa severed ties with the Parish Missionary Society in Bulozi due to the negative treatment of Africans by the white missionaries. Furthermore, Mokalapa criticized the colonial government for its failure to address racial discrimination and inequality. In Luapula and among the Mambwe communities, the Watch Tower movement gained significant traction by 1919. Its teachings proclaimed that only Caucasians would face damnation while Africans would be saved.

The movement’s followers also rejected the authority of chiefs and the colonial government, recognizing only the authority of God. The Watchtower movement vehemently opposed racial discrimination and various injustices perpetrated by the white community and colonial administration against Africans. Moreover, they voiced their opposition to the forced involvement of Africans in the First World War. This led to the banishment of the Watch Tower movement in the Mambwe country by the colonial authorities in 1939.

SECONDARY RESISTANCE

WELFARE SOCIETIES

In 1912, Donald Siwale established the inaugural Welfare Association in Northern Rhodesia at Mwenzo, known as the Mwenzo Welfare Association. This association aimed to foster a connection between the colonial government and the African population. However, due to the unpreparedness of the African people for political engagement, the association was dissolved in 1928.

Another welfare association, the Livingstone Native Welfare Association, emerged in Livingstone in 1930 with the objective of opposing racial segregation and discrimination against Black individuals by the White population. Subsequently, numerous other Welfare Associations were established in Northern Rhodesia.

In 1946, Dauti Yamba, the founder of one such association in Luanshya, united all the Welfare Associations to form the Federation of Welfare Societies. These organizations fervently opposed the injustices of colonial rule and advocated for the rights and welfare of African workers and the overall African community. It was at the conference held by the Federation of Welfare Societies in 1948 that the first political party in Northern Rhodesia, the Northern Rhodesia African Congress, was birthed. The esteemed Godwin Mbikusita Lewanika served as its first leader.

TRADE UNIONS

In Northern Rhodesia, the White miners sought to preserve their positions and improve their working conditions, while also aiming to prevent Africans from obtaining skilled employment. In order to safeguard these interests, they made the decision to establish their own Union in 1930, ultimately known as the Mine Workers Unions. Subsequently, in 1935, African miners at Nkana, Roan Antelope, and Mufulira embarked on a strike, demanding improved service conditions and other rights.

This course of action was repeated in 1940 by African miners at Nkana and Mufulira, as they voiced similar concerns. Additionally, African railway workers staged a strike in 1944. Recognizing the need to support African workers in forming their own union, the British government dispatched Comrie to Northern Rhodesia. His mission was to provide assistance in achieving this objective.

The establishment of the first African Trade Union took place in 1948, under the name of the Copperbelt Shop Assistants Union. Subsequently, numerous trade unions emerged across various mine compounds and organizations. In 1949, Lawrence Katilungu played a significant role in uniting the Mine Trade Unions, resulting in the formation of the Northern Rhodesia African Mine Workers Union, with Katilungu assuming its inaugural leadership position.

The Northern Rhodesia African Trade Union Congress was established in 1952 with Lawrence Katilungu serving as its President. Its main goal was to advocate for better rights and improved working conditions for African workers.

African resistance to the establishment of colonial rule in Central Africa was significant. Many Africans fought against the intrusion of colonial powers and sought to preserve their independence and control over their land. This resistance took various forms, including armed uprisings, diplomatic negotiations, and cultural preservation. The strength and determination of African resistance played a crucial role in shaping the history of Central Africa during the colonial era.

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